Language Paper

Language is something that generally every human has as a form of communication. It can be in the form of verbal words, in the form of written words, or even in the form of signed words, but it is something that as humans we all use in one way or another. The need for language evolved as a way for people to express their thoughts, their feelings and emotions, and even their fears. Humans needed a way to communicate with each other to express things that normally couldn’t be expressed. This paper is going to set out to cover language. It will cover the definition of language and lexicon, as well as evaluate the key features of language. The paper with describe the four levels of the language structure and processing as well as analyze the role of language processing in cognitive psychology. While it seems so simple, language is a complex as well as fascinating cognitive function that will be explored more in this paper. Language and Lexicon If a person were asked to define language they would probably just comment on the fact of verbal communication. In fact the true definition of language is that it is a systematic means of communicating by the use of sounds or conventional symbols (Caplan, 2007). When a person talks about lexicon they are literally talking about a person’s vocabulary. According to Caplan, lexicon’s definition is that it is a language’s vocabulary or the language user’s knowledge of words (2007). As stated above language is a cognitive function that is actually part of a process called the linguistic process. The linguistic process allows a person to be able to not only produce communication, but to be able to understand it as well. This concept will be explored more throughout the paper. When people speak about the structure of language it is generally useful to think of it as having four levels. The four levels include, speech sounds or phonemes, words, sentences, and groups of sentences or texts (Willingham, 2007). The lowest level phonemes, which are basically speech sounds, are where the analysis of the sounds that make up words comes in. Phonemes are basically the individual sounds of speech that correspond to the letters in the alphabet of the person trying to use communication. If a person just looks at just the English language they would find that there are 46 phonemes. Worldwide a person would find about 200 phonemes (Willingham, 2007). Continuing on with the English language, the 46 phonemes that correspond with each letter of the alphabet combine in different ways in order to create the roughly 600,000 words contained in the English language alone. In each language there are certain rules when it comes to phonemes stating how the phonemes can be combined and where they can appear in a word (Willingham, 2007). An example of one of the rules in the English language is that a stop consonant cannot appear more than once at the beginning of a word. Phonemes are the first levels that are combined to create words, which are the second level. After that it goes into the third level in which words combine together to create sentences. Of course a person can’t just combine any words in order to make sentences, there are rules involved with this just as there are rules involved with making words. In order for a sentence to be understandable and be proper in structure a person must include proper grammar was well as proper order in the sentence itself. The last level of language structure and processing is grouping sentences together or making text. When a person talks about text they are referring to a group of sentences that combine together and that are related in order to make a paragraph or a group of paragraphs. In order to make a proper text there has to be a connection between the sentences involved in the text. The sentences in the text have to relate to each other, they have to make sense, and lastly they must have logical connections that make each sentence relevant to the previous sentence. Language is defined by five basic properties that are deemed critical for language. The properties include communicative, arbitrary, structured, generative, and dynamic. The first property, communicative, is a property because as it describes it permits one person to communicate with another person. Next in the properties is arbitrary, which is the fact that the relationship between language’s elements and their meaning is arbitrary. When it comes to symbols, arbitrariness is one of the key features. A sound can stand for a meaning, but as to which sound stands for which meaning is considered arbitrary (Willingham, 2007). While language is arbitrary, it is at the same time structured as well. Basically meaning the pattern of symbols is not arbitrary at all. Next is the fact that language is also generative. The basic units of language such as words can be used to build any number of meanings. Finally, language is dynamic because it is not just static. According to Willingham, language is changing constantly as new words are added and the rules of grammar slowly and subtly change (2007). Language Processing in Cognitive Psychology Language is a remarkable process when it is looked at on a cognitive level. As far as language is concerned, humans are the only being on earth that posses the ability to be able to communicate through language. When it comes to a person’s basic needs and desires a person has only to communicate them through words for them to be met. Another interesting fact is that a person is able to learn language rapidly and effectively through their childhood, yet as a person grows older language acquisition becomes harder for the person. When it comes to language processing it plays a key role in cognitive psychology due to the fact that it deciphers the way in which a person is able to communicate as well as process, store, and retrieve the language that they acquire. Conclusion When it comes to humans the primary tool of communication is language. Language is something that generally every human has as a form of communication. It can be in the form of verbal words, in the form of written words, or even in the form of signed words, but it is something that as humans we all use in one way or another. The need for language evolved as a way for people to express their thoughts, their feelings and emotions, and even their fears. Humans needed a way to communicate with each other to express things that normally couldn’t be expressed. Language is one of the remarkable cognitive processes that humans all share and without language it would be difficult to communicate with another person. Without the levels of language or the rules that are involved with it would probably be difficult for people to understand one another, much less communicate effectively with each other.ReferencesCaplan, D. (2007) Language: Structure, Processing, and Disorders. Retrieved November 10, 2010 from http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?tid=4344&ttype=2 Willingham, D.T. (2007). Cognition: The thinking animal (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Person/Allyn & Bacon.

Aims Of Guidance And Counselling Essay

The aims of the guidance and counselling service are similar to the purposes of education in general—to assist the student in fulfilling her basic physiological needs, understanding herself and acceptance of others, developing associations with peers, balancing between permissiveness and controls in the educational setting, realizing successful achievement, and providing opportunities to gain independence. The purposes of guidance and counselling provide emphasis and strength to the educational program. Some specific aims of the school guidance and counselling program include the following (Gibson, 2009): To Provide for the Realization of Student Potentialities To all students, the school offers a wide choice of courses and co-curricular activities. A significant function of education is to help students identify and develop their potentialities. The counsellor’s role is to assist students to distribute their energies into the many learning opportunities available to them. Every student needs help in planning his major course of study and pattern of co-curricular activities. To Help Children with Developing Problems Even those students who have chosen an appropriate educational program for themselves may have problems that require help. A teacher may need to spend from one-fifth to one-third of his time with a few pupils who require a great deal of help, which deprives the rest of the class from the teacher’s full attention to their needs. The counsellor, by helping these youngsters to resolve their difficulties, frees the classroom teacher to use his time more efficiently. To Contribute to the Development of the School’s Curriculum Counsellors, in working with individual students, know their personal problems and aspirations, their talents and abilities, as well as the social pressures confronting them. Counsellors, therefore, can provide data that serve as a basis for curriculum development, and they can help curriculum developers shape courses of study that more accurately reflect the needs of students. Too often, counsellors are not included in curriculum development efforts.

Tourism of Valais,Switzerland Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Tourism of Valais,Switzerland - Research Paper Example Every tourist area undergoes a life cycle that mainly consists of the exploration, involvement, development, consolidation, stagnation, and rejuvenation or decline stages. The involvement stage saw the establishment of a few hotels and the significant growth in the number of tourist arrivals in the destination. The domestic and German markets were the most popular at this time. The development stage saw the involvement of government and private developers in the establishment of infrastructures such as roads, airports and railway networks and expensive facilities for the expansion of the tourism sector. The consolidation stage was characterized by the improvement of infrastructure and tourist facilities so as to boost the tourism economy of the area. Over the last six years, the tourism sector has been on the decline stage with tourist arrivals reducing almost every year and the balance of payment only slightly improving.Valais has gone through most of the stages of the TALC model. A t the exploration stage, locals especially enjoyed the natural environment the number of tourist arrivals being quite low. Considering domestic tourist arrivals as shown in table one, it is evident that for the last six years beginning 2005 and ending in 2010, the popularity of Valais has been on the steady decline. This state of events is mainly as a result of the destination having reached a point of unsustainable development. The destination generally seems to be congested with little room for development.

Jones Soda Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Jones Soda - Essay Example 7-Eleven stores, etc. The company is focusing on dealing with customers and always responds to demand's changes. Jones Soda created a "trend for passion" not only among drinkers, but also among shareholders, employees and directors. The current strategy is to expand the company's share nationally within the next years. Jones Soda is developing markets and distributing alternative and new beverages like diet soda, energy drinks, soda and spring water. That is why the business strategy is to significantly increase the sale sales by means of expending the product distribution in existing and new markets. The strategy also involves stimulating customers and increasing their uptake about the unique products. The strategic goal aims as expanding nationally and internationally wide like, for example, Coca-Cola Company. The company wants to become one of the best soda companies. Therefore the company has to promote its products nationwide and then worldwide. The strategic map is focusing on younger generation considering that alternative beverages depend mostly on image. The important factor will be creating new brands and products. in other words company aims at introducing flavors each year. (Underwood 2005) Business and financial position. The business and financial position of the company is rather stable and prosperous.

Journals Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Journals - Coursework Example ould consider transferring part of share premium to profits for the company to comply with the law and be able to utilize the available finances to pay dividends and as such be able to acquire further finances from shareholders. Lack of debentures and loan notes means that the company is entirely financed through share capital. Gearing ratio= (Long term debt short term debt+ bank overdrafts / shareholders equity). A high gearing ratio means the company is mainly financed through debt capital. However, low gearing ratio indicates that a company is financed mostly by share capital. The problem of financing a company mostly by share capital is that in the event of poor performance whereby a company continuously makes losses, the shareholder may decline to commit their monies further in such a business (Ariff and Hassan, 2008). Nevertheless, the company can acquire finances from other providers of capital if it has a mixed debt structure. Profitability ratios determine the ability of a business to generate profits after netting all the expenses incurred during the year. A high ratio is indicative of good performance whereas lower rate shows the business is performing poorly. These ratios include: Gross profit is difference obtained between sales turnover and cost of goods or services. The higher the gross margin, the more profit a company charges for its goods. The ratio of 0.31 is quite small in relation to sales made. This means the company is charging very low margins. This ratio captures gives the figure of how much a company makes or loses from its sales. Primarily, it indicates company’s level of performance as it accounts other components of operating income other than cost of sales. The ratio of 0.09 indicates the profits are relatively low compared to sales made. This ratio is also commonly known as quick ratio. It measures the current liquidity position of a company. This is achieved by weighing the current assets against current liabilities (Kaminski

Criminal Theory Paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Criminal Theory - Research Paper Example The paper also deals with the common models used by society to determine which acts are considered to be criminal, how they are affected by choice theories, and how they are enforced by the government. It is essential to identify the various choice theories and how they contribute to an in depth understanding of how crimes are being perceived by the society and the criminal justice system. Regoli and Hewitt have made some remarkable studies on the various choice theories on crimes and for the researchers choice theories hold â€Å"that people have free will, are rational and intelligent, and make informed decisions to commit crimes based on whether they believe they will benefit from doing so† (Regoli & Hewitt 66). Thus, an individual has the free will to decide whether to commit a crime or refrain from it in given situations. The ultimate choice of indulging in crimes rests on the individual himself. Very often, individuals commit crimes only after evaluating the possible ben efits as well as the consequences of the action in their lives. It can thus be inferred that individuals tend to keep themselves away from crimes when such consequences of crimes would lead them to pain, punishment, imprisonment or even death penalty. Choice theories can generally be categorized into rational choice theory, the routine activities theory and the life style theory. All these choice theories underline the fact that people are more inclined to commit crimes when right opportunities arise and there is nothing to deter or de-motivate them from such choices. The rational choice theory was developed and propagated by Ronald Clarke and Derek Cornish. The authors argue that offenders are â€Å"rational people who make calculated choices before they commit a criminal act† and as such they â€Å"collect, process, and evaluate information about the crime; they weigh the costs and benefits of the crime before they make the decision to commit it† (Regoli & Hewitt 67) . Thus, the rational choice theorists argue that offenders commit planned crimes where they decide whom to target and in what way to operate their criminal activities. The theory has great significance in the criminal justice system. It is imperative that there are powerful provisions of punishment and deterrence in the criminal justice system to put an end to rational choice crimes. From a rational choice perspective the decisions of the offenders regarding the crime are quite purposive, intentional and deliberative. However, these decisions can be â€Å"biased on limited information, made under pressure, insufficiently planned, and/or attentive only to the immediate risks of apprehension rather than to the long-term consequences of their actions† (Lilly, Ball & Cullen 342). Most often, crimes based on choice theories stem from the offender’s attempts to satisfy his/her needs to earn money, acquire social status or to take revenge. On the other hand, the offender woul d always try to get rid of the negative consequences of the crime which include arrest, punishment and imprisonment. However, rational choice theory does not focus very much on the background factors that are involved in the making of crimes. On the other hand, rational choice t

Abu Dhabi Islamic Bank and First Gulf Bank Research Paper

Abu Dhabi Islamic Bank and First Gulf Bank - Research Paper Example The banks in UAE generally belong to two types and they are national and foreign. In the present situation there are around 46 operating banks in UAE among which 21 national banks. The banks are listed either on the Abu Dhabi Securities market or that of Dubai Financial market. Another important feature is rapid spread of Islamic banking with a range of sharia compliant product introduced in the market. The Islamic finance deals like Ijara transactions are highly common in property purchasing deals. Investment is huge with attractions of potential investors (UAE banking sector Report, 2007, p.1). The paper will deal with five common products of two banks operating in UAE. One is the First Gulf Bank (FGB) which is a conventional bank with its branches in some Asian countries and Abu Dhabi Islamic Bank (ADIB) which centers on with the strict principles of Sharia law and operates nationally. Finally after discussion a comparative analysis will be made. Abu Dhabi Islamic Bank (ADIB) Abu Dhabi Islamic Bank (ADIB) set its journey on 20th May 1997 in the form of a Public Joint Stock Company following the Emri decree 9 of 1997. The commercial operations of the bank started on November 11,1988 with the formal inauguration by His Highness Sheikh Abdullah Bin Zayed Al Nahyan, on 18th April 1999.The banks holds a vision to be one of the top tier global Islamic financial services group (5% Cashback with ADIB Covered Cards this summer, 2012). ADIB in the year 2010 introduced a new brand identity as its symbol of new promise. The bank has executed extensive research in the identification of ways which would be suiting the personal needs of customers. The bank delivers unique solution guided by the timeless rule and principles of Sharia. The bank also resides on the principle of banking as it should be. The employees of the bank are working 24*7 in order to implement the rules but also the execution of the powerful promises and offerings which the bank provides. The financing process of the bank is simplified and equipped with the latest e-ADIB Internet Banking which is highly safer and convenient in its use. The bank caters a large number of financial products and also launched some new products and services which lead to the ultimate satisfaction of the clients. Now the focus will be on the products of the ADIB bank with their detailed information and their mechanism (Corporate Banking, 2012). Deposits One of the primary goals of the customers within a banking interaction is that of deposits as keeping cash aside for the future is highly essential in hedging the uncertainties of the future. The deposits option in the ADIB bank helps the customers in making their money work and channelize in the way they want. The 24 hours ATM network service also provides instant access to the funds of the customers (Business Banking, 2012). The corporate banking offers a huge range of Sharia compliant Islamic banking solutions includes a large range of Sharia complain t Banking solutions including Murabaha, Istisnaa, Ijara, Islamic covered drawings and other Shari’a compliant products. The corporate banking highly caters on the expansion as well as innovation of tailor made pure Islamic banking solutions to the clients. The Corporate Banking client profile is segmented into government and public sector entities, financial institutions and a diversified private sector base of Trading, Contracting, Real Estate, Energy, Transportation, Manufacturing and other industries within the bank’s target market. Specific screening criteria have been developed to ensure origination of risk in these segments is in accordance with

The Prescott High School Regression Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Prescott High School Regression - Case Study Example Regression analysis, however, offers a more reliable analysis of the relationship between the dependent variable and the independent variables. The analysis develops a model for the relationship and tests the following hypothesis. HO: ÃŽ ²HSGPA =ÃŽ ²SATSCORE =ÃŽ ²RECOMENDATION= 0, There is no significant relationship between the dependent and the independent variablesHA: any of the ÃŽ ²s, There is a significant relationship between the dependent and the independent variablesAppendix 7 shows the ANOVA results and from the results, the alternative hypothesis is significant for the general model (F=19.3151, p= 0.000< 0.05). The model further explains a significant proportion of the data, 48.65 percent, based on the adjusted R squared value. Appendix 8 shows the results for coefficients. The intercept (t= -1.69, p= 096) and quality of letter or recommendation (t= 0.87, p= 0.383) are not significant while high school score (t= 2.66, p= 0.01) and SAT total score (t= 3.97, t= 0.000) are sig nificant. Running a regression analysis with the significant variables yields the results in Appendix 9. The results in Appendix 10 show a significant relationship between college GPA and both high school GPA and total SAT score. The intercept is not significant but coefficients are and the following model represents the relationship.The model that includes only significant independent variables is better in predicting the scores because it eliminates effects of the other variables that can be attributed to error.

Reconstruction Writing Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Reconstruction Writing - Assignment Example Notably, President Lincoln wanted people to forgive one another and the defeated states to rejoin the Union immediately (â€Å"Houghton Mifflin Company† 1). Conversely, the Radical Republicans in Congress sought to change the South and protect the rights of African Americans (â€Å"Houghton Mifflin Company† 1). Ideally, the United States Congress passed four statutes known as Reconstruction Acts after the civil war, which sought to support Reconstruction by creating five military districts in the South (â€Å"Houghton Mifflin Company† 1). Most specifically, President Lincoln assumed that the defeated states did not seceded from the Union and hence should suffer any punishment. Nevertheless, the Congress opposed his plan. Indeed, when Lincoln died, his successor, President Johnson adopted Lincoln’s plan to the dismay of the Congress. In the reconstruction plan, President Johnson pardoned all Southerners under oath and recognized the governments of defeated states (â€Å"Houghton Mifflin Company† 1). Indeed, by the end of 1865, only one Southern state lacked a new government and suffered from slavery. Nevertheless, the results of the mid-term elections in 1866 eliminated the Presidential Reconstruction and instituted the Congressional Reconstruction as the Radical Republicans gained dominant control in both houses. ... The Congress Reconstruction plan included the establishment of a Freedmen's Bureau to help freed slaves, enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 to protect the freed slaves from black codes, passing the 14th Amendment to protect the Civil Rights Act, and passing the Passage of Reconstruction Acts to bar defeated states from rejoining the Union. More specifically, the Reconstruction plan guaranteed universal manhood suffrage, mandated public school systems, and established progressive tax structures. The Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Reconstruction Amendments to the United States Constitution sought to help in the implementation of the Reconstruction plan after the Civil war. The amendments empowered the national government over the states where the Thirteenth Amendment ended slavery, Fourteenth Amendment gave blacks full citizenship, and The Fifteenth Amendment recognized the right of African American men to vote (â€Å"Houghton Mifflin Company† 1). Nevertheless, Pre sident Andrew Johnson attempted to veto Congress Reconstruction plans where the Congress had curtailed his powers through the Tenure of Office Act. However, President Andrew Johnson violated the restraining act, which propelled the Congress to impeach him (â€Å"Digital History† 1). Personally, the Congress Reconstruction plan is seemingly the best plan subject to its encouraging results. Indeed, under the Congress Reconstruction plan, black and white people were able to access public schools, homestead exemptions, and there was equal distribution of public resources (â€Å"Prentice Hall† 1). Furthermore, although President Johnson’s plan was significant in appointing military governors to

Montessori Philisophy Essay Example for Free

Montessori Philisophy Essay Introduction The child at birth appears almost nothing. He cannot walk, cannot talk and he can’t even eat on his own. The same child within two years learns so much. He can walk, run, talk continuously. Maria Montessori calls the child during this formative period, â€Å"a Spiritual Embryo†. The human being is provided with two embryonic periods. One is pre-natal and another one post-natal. The pre-natal period is the period when the physical development takes place. All beings have only pre-natal period. But the human being has another embryonic period which is post-natal. Any animal immediately after birth starts to walk, eats on his own and it will be a complete animal whereas the man has a prolonged infancy in order to become independent. Montessori biography An Italian educator of the early 20th century Maria is remembered as the founder of the famous Montessori Method of education Maria Montessori was born in the town of Chiaravalle in the province of Ancona, Italy on 31 august; 1870She developed interest and biology became her great passion. She persisted and became the first woman in Italy to earn the degree of doctor of medicine. She was appointed at the psychiatric clinic in the University of Rome. She worked with special need children and became deeply interested in their education. In 1904 she was appointed as professor of anthropology at the university. She died in 1952. Birth of a method In 1906, she was appointed as a co-director of a new training institute for special education teacher. Her studies led her to observe the method of teaching children with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Many of the children made unexpected gains and the program was proclaimed success. In 1907, Maria accepted a new challenge to open infant school in a slum clearance rehousing program in Rome. The first school, in sanLorenzo, It was called Casa dei bambini, a quality learning environment for young children. Utilising scientific observations and experience gained from her earlier work from young children she designed learning materials and environment that foster the children natural desire to learn. In 1910, the Montessori Method became worldwide creating a new education. New Education The new education is a revolution; but a revolution without violence. It is the non-violent revolution†. (Maria Montessori, The Absorbent mind, Translated from Italian by Claude A.claremont.Newyork,1967,p.215)   Dr. Maria Montessori called for a revolution in society to human development and education. According to ‘the philosophy of new education’ character building is a question of auto construction and children must be helped in their own work of constructing their character. â€Å"There is only one problem, and it is human development in its totality; once this is achieved in any unit-child or nation everything else follows spontaneously and harmoniously† (Maria Montessori, To Educate the human potential, kalashetra publication,adyar,madras,1961,p 13.) The aim of education is the balanced development of personality-the whole personality, the integrated personality. Spiritual embryo Montessori compared the process of psychological and spiritual development to the physical unfolding of human organism. This post natal work is a constructive activity which is carried on the baby what may be called the â€Å"formative period† and it makes the baby into a kind of spiritual embryo. A new born child has no hereditary models of behaviour to follow nevertheless he has â€Å"potentialities â€Å"able to bring about his development, and these are done by making use of outer world. â€Å"The times have changed, turning its attention and energies to the discovery of the child and the development of the great potentialities of the human personality in course of construction† (Maria Montessori, Discovery of the child, ABC-clio ltd,1948) Maria Montessori called these potentialities as â€Å"nebulae† as they are the creative energy which guides the child to absorb from his environment. The growth and psychic of child’s development are driven by an will power and a vital force called â€Å"horme† that makes the child to do what he needs to develop. Only nature, which has established certain laws and determined the needs of the human being in course of development, can dictate the educational method to be followed. According to Montessori there are eight natural laws. Law of work Montessori describes through work the urge of child is met and his concentration to activity also increases and the child reaches a psychic integration state of normalisation Law of independence The child conquest of independence is the basic step in what is called his natural law of development. At birth the child leaves his mother womb and this makes him independent of his bodily process. To be independent the child must function without the help of others. Development of will Montessori believes that decision made by the child on any activity and action taken by the child is the basic for will development. There are three stages of development in will. In first stage the inner urge directs him to do the activity several times by which he gains control over himself and his environment. In second stage he gains power over himself and gets disciplined and accepts the responsibility for his action. In third stage the child gains power to obey. The child turns his power of obedience towards someone else. Power of attention When the child is placed in a environment favourable to his spiritual growth, the child fix his attention upon an object, will use it for the purpose for which it was constructed and will continue to repeat the same exercise .In fact, the attention of the little child was not artificially maintained by a teacher, it was an object which fixed that attention, corresponding to some internal pulse. Development of intelligence According to Montessori, Intellectual development is important as it helps a child to know as well as explore the environment. Through the developing senses, a child is endowed with the necessary mechanism of interacting with the environment Development of imagination and creativity Imagination helps provide understanding to knowledge; it is a fundamental facility through which child makes sense of the world, and it also plays a key role in the learning process. A basic training for imagination is the listening to storytelling. The things that we touch, see and hear coalesce into a picture via our imagination. Imagination is the power of forming a mental image of something not present to the senses or never before wholly perceived in reality. That is the spiritual embryo self-constructs him to become a unified personality. This self-construction is aided internally (mentally) and externally. Internal aid includes the absorbent mind and the sensitive periods. Absorbent mind Montessori observed that young children learn in a unique way from prenatal life to about six years old. Since the neonatal has to learn everything, (he has no tools other than reflexes to survive)he must acquire his survival skills in some other way. A child absorbs knowledge directly into his psychic life. A child learns by taking in everything around him and constructs himself. Using his senses he creates himself without thought or choice. This mentality of child is absorbent mind. Montessori saw absorbent mind in two phases. Unconscious mind (0-3 yrs) At birth, the spiritual embryo has no knowledge or impression in him, it is totally empty. It has to start from nothing. At this stage the child absorbs all impressions from his environment unconsciously. (I.e. the child does not know that he has taken all this with in him) To do this he has no other tools other than his reflexes to survey. At this point the child is like a sponge. He absorbs all information’s without any filters. This process takes place naturally without any thought or choice. This is called unconscious mind or unconscious creation mind. Once these information are incorporated in his schemas, it will be end of his third year, and he has developed his mental muscles. This preparation of the unconscious mind is used for later development and activity, after three years, a trans takes place from unconscious mind to another phase called conscious mind or conscious work mind. Conscious mind (3-6 yrs.) In this stage the child’s ability to focus, use his energy, and capacity to absorb, information in tremendous. This helps in developing emotions and intellectual aspects. From three years of age he moves to the conscious mind using the impressions developed and created during his first three years. This memory which absorbs images into individual’s life is called gifted memory or mneme. Any impedance which lessons the creativity in this age reduces the perfections. At this age they have a good creative power and imagination. He learns how to understand, ability the reasons and his mathematical mind compels him, to perfect himself. Sensitive periods Montessori observed a cognitive plan which determines the unique emotional and intellectual qualities of each child. These qualities develop through what Montessori referred to as the sensitive periods. Montessori identified six different sensitive periods from birth through age six. Sensitivity to order During this period there is a need for a precise and determined environment, which can be observed by the joy which children show at seeing things in their proper places. The presence of this period is more evident when the order is somehow interfered with. â€Å"Order is one of the needs of life which, when it is satisfied, produces a real happiness† (Montessori, The Secret of Childhood. Ballantine Books, 1973, 52). Learning through their five senses Child is sensitized to sensory order in other words, to the difference s things, that some are soft or hard, that objects have colour, different colours, and shapes of the same colour. He needs to freely explore his prepared world so he can differentiate these qualities There is nothing in the intellect which was not first in some way in the senses, and senses being explorers of the world, opens the way to knowledge.† Maria Montessori. Sensitive to movement The sensitive period for movement is most intense during the first year of life. By about twelve months many babies take their first steps. An infants need to walk is so strong that he becomes upset if he is impeded. The childs rhythm is so much slower than our own. He walks to perfect his walking; whereas we walk with purposeful intent. Sensitive to language During sensitive period for language, no one teaches the child to talk. His language develops naturally like a spontaneous creation of all auditory stimulation surrounding the baby, it is the human voice that he deeply hears and imitates. By six months, he is uttering his first syllables, and by about two years old he explodes into language. He talks and talks non-stop. Sensitive to small object A child has the urge to pay attention to small objects from two years of age. Sensitivity to small objects is an important development because it helps widen the child’s power of observation and allows the child concentrate his intellectual power on a specific problem. Principles of Prepared Environment â€Å"The first aim of the prepared environment is, as far as it is possible, to render the growing child independent of the adult†. (Maria Montessori. The Secret of Childhood: Fides Publishers, 1966.) Her life and work,cosmo publication.newdeldi,2009,p246) Montessori’s idea of the prepared environment was that everything the child came in contact with would facilitate and maximize independent learning and exploration. Children are free to choose and work on activities at their own pace. There are generally six aspects, or principles, to the Prepared Environment, Freedom, Structure and Order, Beauty, Nature and reality, Social Environment, Montessori materials. Freedom Montessori believed that a child must be free to explore and follow his own natural impulses, thus developing his potential and increasing his knowledge of the world around him. â€Å"Young people must have enough freedom to allow them to act on individual initiative. But in order that individual action should be free and useful at the same time it must be restricted with certain limits and rules that give the necessary guidance.’’ (Montessori, M. (1994). From Childhood To Adolescence, Oxford: Clio press, p73) Within the prepared environment, the child must experience freedom of movement, freedom of exploration, freedom to interact socially, and freedom from interference from others. Structure and Order Structure and Order in the Montessori classroom accurately reflect the sense of structure and order in the universe. By using the Montessori classroom environment the child begins to internalize the order surrounding him, thus making sense of the world in which he lives. If there is not order to his environment, the child’s sense of reason may be off since he will not be able to validate his findings. Atmosphere and Beauty Montessori environments should be beautiful, reflect peace and tranquillity. The environment should invite the learner to come in and work. This atmosphere is easily seen by the attitude of those working there, both child and adult. Nature and Reality Montessori believed that we should use nature to inspire children. She continually suggested that Montessori teachers take the children out into nature, rather than keeping them confined in the classroom. This is why natural materials are preferred in the prepared environment. It is here where child-size real objects come into play. Furniture should be child-size so the child is not dependent on the adult for his movement. Social Environment As children develop, they become more socially aware, preparing to work and play in groups. This social interaction is supported throughout the environment and is encouraged with the nature of multi-age classroom settings. A prepared environment only with a Montessori teacher becomes a whole. The children and the teacher unite to form education whole which is dynamic and continuous process of development for both of them. Montessori materials The materials must aid the internal formation of the child. The material must correspond to the child’s inner needs. This means that materials must be presented at the right moment of the child’s development. Periods of development The four Planes (or phases) of development is an overall vision of Montessori’s developmental psychology from infancy to adulthood. 3 9 15 21 Birth first 6 second 12 third 18fourth 24 24 First period (0-6 years) This period is marked by rapid and intense changes in the overall development physical, cognitively, socially, emotionally. Second period (6-12 years) Montessori observed changes in children focus and direction in their development. Children’s focus change from one of self-creation to the development of social being. Third period (12-18 years) Montessori regarded adolescence as a period of great vulnerability and a period of self-construction. The Role of the Teacher Dr. Montessori believed that the teacher should focus on the child as a person rather than on the daily lesson plans. Although the Montessori teacher plans daily lessons for each child, she must be alert to changes in the child’s interest, progress, mood, and behaviour. Child [observer][Provider] Teacher Environment [Preparer] Teacher and child has two folds of role to play. Teacher is an observer observing the child in the environment. Preparer-prepares the friendly environment for the child.Maria Montessori offered some general principles of behaviour for teachers in the Montessori classroom. The teacher becomes the custodian of the environment. All the apparatus is to be kept meticulously in order, perfect condition the teacher also must be tidy and clean, calm and dignified When the child begins to show interest in any activity, the teacher must not interrupt, because this interest corresponds with natural laws and opens up a whole cycle of new activities exist. The duty of the teacher is only to present new things when she knows that a child has exhausted all the possibilities of those he was using before. Montessori teachers are the dynamic link between children and the Prepared Environment. They systematically observe their students and interpret their needs. They are constantly experimenting, modifying the environment to meet their perceptions of each childs needs and interests, and objectively noting the result. They prepare an environment meant to facilitate children’s independence and ability to freely select work that they find appealing. They observe and evaluate each child’s individual progress. They respect and protect their students independence. They are diagnosticians who can interpret patterns of growth, development, and behaviour in order to better understand the children and make necessary referrals and suggestions to parents. Conclusion From birth to adulthood a child undergoes development and transformation within him. To be able to develop themselves fully, children need a special inner tutor which Montessori referred to as absorbent mind and sensitive period. The natural laws that govern the child normal psychic developmentsduring the varies period of development are revealed during his construction. With his inner potentials, and the sensitive periods with a prepared environment and a teacher, the childhood period undergoes varies transformation. By this the child gets normalised and become an unified personality in the society.

The Effectiveness Of The Jigsaw Approach

The Effectiveness Of The Jigsaw Approach The purpose of this research was to study and analyze the effectiveness of the jigsaw method and other cooperative learning strategies for students with learning disabilities. A 20-question survey about cooperative learning strategies, including the jigsaw, was used to determine educators knowledge of the jigsaw approach and the effectiveness they have had using it with students with and without a disability. Research findings indicate that educators believe cooperative learning does have a positive impact on their students learning new material. Concerns still exist with educators knowledge of cooperative learning strategies and how to properly implement them in the classroom setting. Cooperative learning strategies have been used to improve student achievement for many years. The effectiveness of these strategies, for students with and without disabilities, has been debated. The jigsaw method is a specific strategy that involves students working together and teaching their peers new material. Educators knowledge of cooperative learning is an important aspect for implementing specific strategies, like the jigsaw method. This study is focused on educators knowledge and their opinion on the effectiveness of cooperative learning for students with and without disabilities. The concern of a need for professional development was also examined as a way to increase knowledge of cooperative learning strategies. Review of Literature Cooperative learning is a strategy that has been a part of the education world for many years. It was developed out of the theory of constructivism. It has expanded from its original design of just having students work together with a partner or small group. The effectiveness of cooperative learning has been demonstrated through numerous studies as an effective strategy to increase students comprehension (Bigge Stump, 1999, Law, 2011, Santos Rego Del Mar Lorenzo Moledo, 2005). Law (2011) found, that students higher-order reading performance could be enhanced through engaging in cooperative learning activities with well-planned scaffolding by their teachers (p. 416). Cooperative learning has traditionally been looked at in the general education classroom, but it can also be used for working with students with special needs. Numerous strategies fall under the category of cooperative learning. One particular research-based strategy that has demonstrated effectiveness for increasing student understanding is the jigsaw method. The jigsaw falls under cooperative learning because it allows students to work together to learn new material. According to Bigge and Stump (1999), for cooperative learning to be effective, students need ample opportunities to solve problems as a group first and then resort to teacher assistance (p. 121). Gà ¶Ãƒ §er (2010) suggests the jigsaw approach should be used mainly in teaching grammar and literature. The jigsaw approach is just one of many cooperative learning strategies that has demonstrated effectiveness, but does have weaknesses as a strategy for students in general education as well in special education. The jigsaw approach was first developed by Elliot Aronson (1971) to help students develop their social and cooperative skills. The original purpose was to deal with desegregation issues in Texas, but as it was being implemented, it was discovered that students were gaining a better understanding of the content. There have been numerous studies since then to demonstrate its effectiveness in increasing student understanding. To implement the jigsaw approach, a step-by-step process needs to be followed. Step one is that each student must be a member of two groups. The first group is the home group where students will begin and end the activity and there should be no more than five students in each group. The main responsibility of each member in home group is to teach a portion of the assigned reading/work. Once students are assigned their section they will move to a second group called the expert group. During this step, students discuss the reading/work and gain an understanding until they feel comfortable with presenting the material to their home group. In the final step, students return to their home group and take turns presenting the information they became experts on and listen as other students present their material. In the end, all students have been taught the reading/work without having to do all the work on their own (Fisher, Brozo, Frey, Ivey, 2007). Research provides guidelines for how long students should work in their expert group before they return to their home group. Most studies support part of a given class period, but one study suggests much longer. Young, Hadgraft, and Young (1997) support using shorter periods of time between bringing the expert groups back to their home groups because when the time was expanded they encountered more problems in getting all the material together. The jigsaw approach has also been evaluated for use in the online setting, which is becoming more important to the educational system due to an increase in online education. Weidman and Bishop (2009) found mixed results when using the jigsaw in an online classroom. The struggle came with the individual accountability component of the assignment that was amplified in the online setting. One positive was that it demonstrated increases in student understanding. Benefits of the Jigsaw The jigsaw approach has demonstrated numerous benefits for students of multiple ability levels. Santos Rego and Del Mar Lorenzo Moledo (2005) indicate that the jigsaw technique improved academic performance with students at the beginning of secondary school (ages 12-14 years). The authors connect this finding to students having a higher self-esteem and self-efficacy. They demonstrated that the jigsaw method can be effective at the high school level with both general education and special education students. A similar strength of the jigsaw is that it can do more than just teach students content material. It can help motivate them and teach them to enjoy learning which can increase self-esteem and self-efficacy. Mengduo and Xiaoling (2010) concluded that, The jigsaw classroom reduces students reluctance and anxiety to participate in the classroom activities while increasing self-esteem and self-confidence (p. 122). This is important to learn at the high school level because students are preparing for their future and need to learn how to participate in group activities. Efe and Efe (2011) analyzed how students assigned as group leaders in the jigsaw helped motivate the rest of the group. Results suggested that when given the title of group leader students worked to motivate other students to complete their work. Education is not just about learning the four core content areas (math, science, English, and social studies), it is also about learning how to interact in society and be a produ ctive citizen. In addition to helping students learn new material, the jigsaw helps build social skills. Anderson and Palmer (2001) reports that the jigsaw approach is backed by research showing it to motivate students to work together, share ideas, pursue common goals, and develop self-esteem. Learning the material, being able to work in groups, and knowing how to motivate people are all positive attributes for success in the work place. Whether it is learning material, building self-esteem, or knowing how to motivate, the jigsaw can be utilized to help students with and without disabilities. A final strength of the jigsaw is that it can decrease students anxiety levels. Many students deal with anxiety throughout their educational careers either in a specific subject, in all subjects, or with test anxiety. Oludipe and Awokoy (2010) examined students anxiety levels in relation to participation in chemistry class. Students were divided into two groups; one in a cooperative learning classroom that used the jigsaw approach and the other using a traditional lecture approach. The results showed that students in the cooperative classroom had lower levels of anxiety due to the positive interdependence attribute of the jigsaw method. Positive interdependence allows students to see that success is dependent on their effort and the contributions of the group. Oludipe and Awokoy (2010) conclude that students became more confident and felt secure participating actively in chemistry lessons (p. 35). The jigsaw method also provides a way to help students become active in classroom activities and/or lessons. When students are anxious or sometimes even afraid to contribute, they are going to miss information that is needed to fully understand the material. The jigsaw allows students to work with one another and develop a sense of being needed. When students are needed by their peers, they are more likely to do the work and contribute to the group, and when they do the work, they are less anxious to become involved in future activities. It can also be used early in the school year to help students get to know one another, as it is useful for social skill development as well. Limitations of the Jigsaw The use of the jigsaw approach does have several limitations as well. The first relates to the teacher. A jigsaw is dependent on a teacher explaining how to properly implement the approach and if not done properly, the likelihood of success is limited. Souvignier and Kronenberger (2007) aimed to determine the effectiveness of the jigsaw approach at the elementary level by comparing three conditions of instruction (i.e., jigsaw, jigsaw with a supplementary questioning training, and teacher guided instruction). The results showed that students used the jigsaw method with average results. The authors determined that younger, elementary-aged students could benefit from the jigsaw, but only if certain conditions were met. The authors suggest that, cooperative learning in younger children needs as well explicit (preparing experts as teachers; questioning and explanation training) as implicit (fostering interdependence by adequate learning materials) support (p. 769). The jigsaw seems to be limited in its use with elementary students due to the fact that it requires more specific training for the students before it can be used as successfully as it is for older students which can be a deterrent due to time limitations and classroom demands. Another limitation of the jigsaw approach is the actual data that supports the use of the jigsaw method. As previously noted, the jigsaw approach can be time consuming and difficult to implement. A study examined the jigsaw approach and found that students using the jigsaw performed better than students using a traditional teaching method (Dollard, Mahoney, 2010). Then results showed only a 0.9% increase on a test favoring the jigsaw method. Thus Dollard and Mahoney (2010) concluded, 0.9% is not enough of a difference to conclude with certainty, that the Jigsaw Method is a stronger academic tool than the traditional method of lecture and note taking (p. 12). The participants were in the 8th grade, supporting the finding that the jigsaw method may not be as effective with younger students. A final limitation is related to the findings of Souvignier and Kronenberger (2007), in that it deals with the proper implementation of the jigsaw steps by younger students. This study involved a group of seventh graders who, according to their science teachers, had experience using the jigsaw approach. The purpose of the study was to determine the effect on student learning of the jigsaw approach and another cooperative learning approach. Results showed that neither approach enhanced students understanding of specific science concepts (Zacharia, Xenofontos, Manoli, 2011). However, a major component of the jigsaw approach was left out by the students involved in the jigsaw method. According to Zacharia and colleagues (2011), In particular, after the students returned to their home groups from their expert groups, they engaged in a working mode similar to the TCA one, in which students visit together all the websites, discuss and take notes, rather than teaching each other about the portion of websites they were assigned to them for study (p. 417). These results again support the idea that younger students have a more difficult time following the precise steps involved in the jigsaw method. Teachers in the study reported that students knew the jigsaw method, but when put into action, they skipped the important step of teaching the other members of their group about the area they became an expert on. The step of teaching information to the other students is the main component in the jigsaw approach. If this step was left out, it is clear the students in this study were actually not comfortable or skilled in using the jigsaw approach. Cooperative learning has its roots in the constructivist approach, which entails using experience-based activities. The jigsaw approach allows students to experience learning and contribute to their learning. Tamah (2007) states, Students are encouraged to learn from their fellow students in their expert team and when they go back to their home team they are encouraged to teach one another the material they have worked on in the expert team (p. 13) which describes exactly how the jigsaw approach should work in a classroom. This approach sounds ideal for teachers because it allows the students to be actively engaged in teaching one another. The jigsaw also allows the teacher to be a facilitator, not a director in the classroom, which is a trend in schools today. As outlined, the jigsaw has multiple strengths and limitations. The overall strength is that it is most effective with older students and effective in motivating students to learn as well as to become more confident in their abilities. The jigsaw is an approach that needs to be taught by the teacher and even modeled to ensure every student fully understands the process. A major limitation of the jigsaw is that if it is not fully and properly implemented, students will not gain an understanding of the material they need and perhaps even miss information because it was not taught to them by their other group members. This weakness tends to be amplified when dealing with younger, elementary students. Current research on the jigsaw approach has mainly been done at the middle to high school level with a balance in learning abilities. However, there are many questions that still exist with regard to the effectiveness of the jigsaw approach. Students with Disabilities One remaining question that is becoming more important to schools, relates to the effectiveness of the jigsaw approach for students with learning disabilities. McMaster and Fuchs (2002) concluded that, studies conducted in special education classrooms were associated with smaller effects for cooperative learning (mean effect size = 0.27), than those implemented in regular education classrooms (mean effect size = 0.44) (p. 115). McMaster and Fuchs (2002) study supports the premise that cooperative learning can have an impact on student achievement for both students with and without disabilities. The aforementioned question can be answered with research focused on teachers knowledge of cooperative learning, specifically the jigsaw approach. Additional questions focus on the use of jigsaw in co-teaching environments, whether the jigsaw is as effective for students with disabilities as it is for those without disabilities, and whether teachers understand cooperative learning strategies a nd if not, is there a need for professional development. There are several questions that need to be answered before an absolute answer can be given regarding the effectiveness of the jigsaw approach. Current literature supports and questions the jigsaw, but the questions posed above may become more important to the future of education as the wave of inclusion continues to change the way students are educated in the United States of America. Method The principle issue investigated in this study was how effective cooperative learning could be for students with learning disabilities. The knowledge educators have about cooperative learning strategies is key to proper implementation leading to increased student achievement. This study assessed educators knowledge of cooperative learning, specific strategies (jigsaw, think-pair-share, and numbered heads together), and the need for professional development. Participants This research was conducted with teachers in a Southeastern Ohio school district and with members from a cohort of masters level preservice teachers. Participants were recruited through email invitations sent to a Southeastern Ohio school district (n=98) and members of a masters level cohort of preservice teachers (n=20). A total of 54 surveys were submitted for a response rate of 46%. All participants were currently educators or working on licensure to enter the field of education with years of teaching experience ranging from 0 to 35 years. The participants reported a variety of teaching experiences, ranging from elementary to college. Eighteen of the 53 participants reported having experience teaching special education and 47 of the 53 participants (87%) reported they work with students with special needs daily. Instrument The aforementioned survey (Appendix A) was constituted of 20 questions, both open-ended and forced-choice, including demographic information, educators knowledge of cooperative learning and specific strategies, and opinions regarding cooperative learnings effectiveness for students with and without disabilities. The fourth question asked educators to define cooperative learning. This information was important because of the varying definitions of cooperative learning. The survey asked how often participants used cooperative learning in general, and then for specific cooperative learning strategies. The survey asked about their understanding of the jigsaw method. Additional questions related to preferred cooperative learning strategies and their opinion regarding how effective cooperative learning is for students with and without disabilities. The survey concluded with a question to determine the need for professional development in the area of cooperative learning. Procedures After receiving approval from the universitys Internal Review Board, the researcher obtained approval from the school districts superintendent to distribute the survey via email. One email was sent to the educators in the school district, while another email was sent to the members of the masters level cohort of preservice teachers. The participants were informed that the online survey (created using Qualtrics, an online survey tool) would take no longer than 10 minutes to complete and were completely anonymous. Two reminder emails were sent asking those that had not completed the survey to do so. Results After the survey was closed, the researcher analyzed the qualitative and quantitative data collected with the survey. The qualitative data was used to determine educators definitions of cooperative learning and the jigsaw approach, as well as educators preferred strategy they used in their classrooms. Quantitative data determined how often specific cooperative learning strategies were used in the classroom, as well as ratings for how effective teachers believe cooperative learning is for students with and without disabilities. The results from 54 surveys are reported, but not every question was answered by each participant so the response rates vary by question. The results demonstrated a variety of responses in how educators defined cooperative learning as well as in their understanding of the jigsaw method. Overall, educators agreed that cooperative learning strategies are effective for helping both students with and without disabilities. Table 1 shows how often participants use cooperative learning in their classroom. The mean value is 2.26 (between 1-2 times per week and 3-4 times per week), with the majority of participants (53%) using cooperative learning 1-2 times per week. Table 2 shows how often participants use the jigsaw method in their classroom. The mean value is 1.31 (between 0 times per week and 1-2 times per week) with the majority of participants (69%) choosing 0 times. Table 3 shows how often participants use the think-pair-share method. The mean is 2.00 (1-2 times per week), with the majority (51%) of choosing 1-2 times per week. Table 4 shows how often participants use the numbered heads together method. The mean score is a 2.4 (between less than once a month and once a month), with the majority (45%) of participants choosing never. Table 5 shows how effective participants think cooperative learning is for students without disabilities. The mean score is 4.10 (between somewhat effective and very effective), with the majority (59%) of participants choosing somewhat effective. The participants were asked to give an explanation for their rating and there were several similarities in their wording. Many referred to it being dependent on the type and age of the students. There was also a common response that not all students are able to learn in groups and need the opportunity to work independently. Table 6 shows participants perceptions of the effectiveness of cooperative learning for students with disabilities. The mean score is 3.96 (between neither effective or ineffective and somewhat effective), with the majority (51%) choosing somewhat effective. The participants were asked to give an explanation for their rating and resulting in several similarities in their responses. Several participants indicated the effectiveness was dependent on students willingness to work with others. Others indicated it was effective because it helped build students social skills through interaction with other students. Defining Cooperative Learning Each participant was asked how he/she defined cooperative learning. Fifty-one out of the 54 participants (94%) completed this question. Of the 51, 34 mentioned that cooperative learning was focused on student grouping or students working together, while three participants defined it as teachers working together. The remaining responses did not specify who was involved in working together, but just that it involved working in groups or together to solve a problem. Understanding the Jigsaw Method. Educators were asked to explain their understanding of the jigsaw method. Forty-four educators answered this question, and off the 44, 17 (39%) explained the jigsaw as putting students into one group to learn material and then join another group to teach the material they learned in their first group. Nine of the 44 (20%) responded as not knowing what it is. The others explained the jigsaw as group work, but did not specify the nature of the groups. Why Some Do Not Use Cooperative Learning Educators who responded that they do not use cooperative learning were asked to explain why. Nine participants responded that they do not use any form of cooperative learning strategy. Four of the nine mentioned time as being the main reason for not using cooperative learning strategies. Other responses included lack of skills by students and forgetting to use them. One response indicated the individual was not familiar with enough strategies and how to implement them. Professional Development for Cooperative Learning. The remaining survey questions dealt with the need for professional development in order to learn more about cooperative learning. Fifty-one participants responses to a question asking whether they would benefit from professional development. Twenty-eight responded, yes (55%), 17 said no (33%), and six responded that they might benefit from professional development. This question was followed by another asking why or why not they would want professional development. Many responses indicated participants have learned about cooperative learning, but forget the specific strategies. Other responses indicated that there is always room to learn new ideas and methods for the classroom. The final question asked participants to indicate where they would like to receive professional development. Of the 34 participants who completed this question, 24 would prefer a workshop with the remaining respondents indicating a webinar as the preferred method of delivery for professional development. Discussion The results indicate there is a concern with educators knowledge about cooperative learning and how to implement specific strategies. The educators had a basic understanding, but did not fully understand cooperative learning. Many explained it as simple group work, when it involves more of an understanding that it is student-led and student-centered instruction. The participants were also asked to give their preferred cooperative learning strategy and only 14 of 49 or 29% were able to identify a specific strategy outside of normal grouping. The participants also had a basic understanding of the jigsaw method, but did not all fully understand the idea of creating a home group and an expert group and students are focused on learning new material. The other area that demonstrates a weakness in their knowledge is the fact that 32 of the 51 or 63% of the participants indicated they would benefit from professional development in the area of cooperative learning. Several participants responded that they know they need to learn more and want to have a better understanding of how the different cooperative learning strategies work. The majority of the participants would also like to attend a workshop to learn about the different cooperative learning strategies. The results also demonstrated that educators believe cooperative learning is effective for students with and without disabilities. Forty-four of the 51 or 86% of the responses indicated that cooperative learning is either somewhat effective or very effective for students without disabilities. This demonstrates that educators have confidence in these strategies for students without disabilities. The results also show that 41 out of 51 or 80% of the participants believe cooperative learning is somewhat effective or very effective for students with disabilities. The study demonstrates the effectiveness of cooperative learning, but there is still the concern of the participants not fully understanding what cooperative learning is and how to implement the different strategies. The primary purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of cooperative learning for students with disabilities. The researcher believes that cooperative learning strategies can have a positive effect on student achievement, but educators need to fully understand the strategies and how to properly implement them. Many of the participants (80%) support the idea that cooperative learning is effective for students with disabilities. Some participants cited social skill development and self-esteem building as reasons why they think cooperative learning can be effective for students with disabilities. The results from this study also indicate participants (86%) believe cooperative learning is effective for students without disabilities as well. The researcher believes this is important and demonstrates why educators need to understand cooperative learning and how to implement the different strategies. The results did not show the effectiveness of the jigsaw method specifically, as only 17 out of 44 participants were able to define the jigsaw method. The researcher believes this indicates that the jigsaw cannot be effective if educators are not even sure what it is or how to implement it correctly. The literature supports the idea that the jigsaw method is more effective for older students, but this study does not support that by the fact that the majority of respondents in this study did not know what or how to implement the jigsaw method. The research does show and support the study by Santos Rego and Del Mar Lorenzo Moledo (2005) that the jigsaw can create a higher self-esteem and self-efficacy for students with disabilities. Several participants stated that cooperative learning helps students develop social skills and build self-esteem. The researcher believes this is important and supports the effectiveness of cooperative learning for students with disabilities. Implications for Practice The implications for this study show that there is a need for educators to gain a better understanding of cooperative learning and the variety of strategies that it entails. Professional development would benefit educators in the area of cooperative learning. The best form would be a workshop to provide them with an interactive approach that allows them to learn the strategies firsthand. Recommendations Further research of a larger sample might provide a better insight into the need for professional development. This could result in more generalization for teachers nationally to receive professional development on cooperative learning. Due to the small sample, this study is only able to determine the needs of one high school. Conclusion In conclusion, this study provides evidence that educators knowledge of cooperative learning is adequate, but there is a need for professional development on specific strategies. Educators realize cooperative learning can have a positive impact on students with and without disabilities, but they are not confident in implementing a variety of strategies. It would be to the benefit of the students for educators to attend a professional development workshop on different cooperative learning strategies.

Close Study Of Wilfred Owen :: essays research papers

~ Anthem For Doomed Youth What passing-bells for these who die as cattle? - Only the monstrous anger of the guns. Only the stuttering rifles’ rapid rattle Can patter out their hasty orisons. No mockeries now for them; no prayer nor bells; Nor any voice of mourning save the choirs, - The shrill demented choirs of wailing shells; And bugles calling for them from sad shires. What candles may be held to speed them all? Not in the hands of boys, but in their eyes Shall shine the holy glimmers of good-byes. The pallor of girls’ brows shall be their pall; Their flowers the tenderness of patient minds, And each slow dusk a drawing-down of blinds. Overview . Anthem - short musical composition, usually sung. . Stark anthesis is used to present a shocking lamentation against the barbarity of war. . This anthem voices the sounds of battle. . Death, violence and sacrifice are central subjects. . This poem is an extended metaphor (funeral). . Personification is used as the main technique. . Tonal shifts from anger/bitter – elegiac mood. Structure . Sonnet, 14 lines, 2 stanzas, 2 quatrains, 1 sestet. . ABAB CDCD. . 10 – beat iambic pedometer rhythm. . Rhetorical questions to start each stanza. . Ends in rhyming couplet. Themes . Doomed Youth – negative, emotive. . Waste/pity – loss of life, waste. . Funeral – recurring image, extended metaphor. Language . Descriptive language. . Demonic force – torture, consume. . Emphasis on the funeral. . Simile, metaphor, personification. . Juxtaposition – sets the scene. Rhyme and Rhythm . Tightly controlled within sonnet structure. . Para-rhyme, used to heighten mournful tone. . Slower rhythmic beat in final quatrain. . Sound mirrors emotion. Symbolism and Imagery . Funeral symbols. . Religious connotations of faith, salvation. . Romanticised images of fallen soldiers. . Visual depiction of the mourner’s face. . Integrates the themes of doomed youth and funeral. . 1st stanza – warfront. . 2nd stanza – homefront.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Detailed Analysis Stanza 1 . ‘Anthem’ – song for helpless young boys. . ‘Doomed Youth’ – assonance. . Rhetorical questions to start both stanza’s ‘What passing bells for these who die as cattle?’ ‘What candles may be held to speed them all?’ . ‘Only the monstrous†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ ‘Only the stuttering†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ – repetition of the word ‘only’ stresses the nature of their deaths. . ‘Only the stuttering rifles’ rapid rattle’ – personification, alliteration and onomatopoeia combine as methods to make war seen more brutal, violent and cruel. . ‘Can patter out their hasty orisons’ – sense of speed. ‘orisons’ – prayer at funeral. . ‘No mockeries’ – Christian rites seen as ‘mockeries’. . ‘No prayers now for them; no prayers nor bells, Nor any†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ – negative connotations are stressed by the alliterative repeated use of ‘no’ and ‘nor’.

Negative Effects Experienced By Our Children :: essays research papers

Cause and Effect Negative Effects Experienced By Our Children   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What have I done? What will my children have to endure today because of the mistakes I made yesterday? â€Å"†¦ but causing the negative effects of the parents’ offenses to be experienced by their children and grandchildren†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Exodus 34:7 (Complete Jewish Bible)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"And do you, MaLinda, take this man to be your lawful†¦Ã¢â‚¬  I don’t think I love this man, but what do I do? I’m four months pregnant. What would people think of me if I didn’t get married? And all these people-how would they feel-making them come here and then I say no? What do I do?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"†¦To have and to hold, so long as you both shall live?† Sigh-â€Å"I do.† Oh God, I hope I didn’t just make a mistake.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sometimes I wonder how different things would be had I not made that second mistake. The first, well that was having sex outside of marriage. I knew it was wrong, but who knew HOW wrong? I didn’t just affect me-it affected my family, his family and the lives of my two children. Sometimes I think they got hurt the worst. Eight years of marriage. How long did they suffer? How long before I realized what was going on?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  My daughter was two years old when I decided that maybe another baby would help. So we had our second child, a boy. It didn’t help. There wasn’t a lot of arguing. There was no communication, just existence.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It was April 1998 when I received the call. One of my former daycare children had made a complaint. There had been suspicion, but not evidence. They called me in-asked me questions. They asked my children questions. I don’t know if we helped.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It was June 1999 when he was found guilty of lewd acts with a minor-2 counts. It’s been 6 years since I’ve removed my children from that house. I still see the negative effects of the mistakes I made. My daughter suffered from emotional stress. For example, for a while we had problems with her seeing imaginary friends. She would watch her two dragons fly around the room or outside of the vehicle. It got to the point where she could even shrink them to fit into her pocket. This way she could take them to class with her. It became even more serious when she tried to get her brother and two cousins involved in playing with her imaginary dragons.

Comparison/Contrast of Cut and The Fourth of July Essay -- essays rese

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Wilkinson 1 Comparison/Contrast of â€Å"Cut† and â€Å"The Fourth of July† In the two essays â€Å"Cut,† by Bob Greene and â€Å"The Fourth of July,† by Audre Lorde they both discuss how disappointments as a child affected their lives. Greene’s essay gives five examples about how five boys were cut from a sports team and how they used that disappointment to become successful as adults. Lorde’s essay differed in that it told one story of how her and her family were on their vacation in Washington D.C. and they were not served at a restaurant because they were black. Both authors discuss feelings of being left out, being discriminated against, and how disappointments affected their lives. However, there are more differences than similarities in the essays. I can relate more to Greene’s essay because I am an athlete; however, I have never been in position of worrying about being cut.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Greene and Lorde were similar in that they both faced a form of discrimination on their childhood that helped better them in the future. In â€Å"Cut† the boys all went to try out for a high school sports team and all of them were cut from the teams. â€Å"For the time in my life, I was told wasn’t good enough† (Greene 56). These boys were discriminated against for not having the ability or talent to be good enough to play on the team. On of the people in the essay, Bob Graham stated, â€Å"I know for a fact that it altered my perception of myself. My view of myself was knocked down; my self was lowered† (Greene 57). No one should ever be put into a situation where they face being told they are not good enough. In the other essay, â€Å"The Fourth of July,† a different type of discrimination was discussed, racism. Lorde’s family, which is African American, was faced with discrimination on a vacation to Washington D.C. The y took the trip because Wilkinson 2 Lorde’s sister Phyllis could not go on her senior class to Washington. â€Å"The nuns had given her back her deposit in private, explaining to her that the class, all of whom were white, except Phyllis, would be staying in a hotel where Phyllis ‘would not be happy,’ Daddy explained to her, also in private, that they did not rent rooms to Negroes† (Lorde 202). While in Washington Lorde and her family went out for ice cream to a Breyer’s ice cream shop. They sat down and a waitress, who was white, walked over and... ...t of the season. Not being a starter gave me the determination to work harder and in the end it all paid off. This experience has made me realize that I can do anything as long as I work hard. Wilkinson 5 In conclusion, both Greene and Lorde discuss how disappointments as child have had positive affects on his/her lives as adults. Greene’s essay applied to me more than Lorde’s because I have never been judged by my appearance. I can’t relate to the fact of being cut from a team, but I can relate to the fact being successful with hard work. Wilkinson 6 Works Cited Greene, Bob. â€Å"Cut.† The Prentice Hall Reader. 6th ed. Ed. George Miller. Trenton, N.J.:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Prentice Hall, 2001. 55-60. Lorde, Audre. â€Å"The Fourth of July.† Models for Writers. 7th ed. Ed. Alfred Rosa and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Paul Eschholz. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001. 201-204. Comparison/Contrast of â€Å"Cut† and â€Å"The Fourth of July† by Shane Wilkinson English 110, Section 03 Mrs. Bailey 30 April 2002   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Comparison/Contrast of Cut and The Fourth of July Essay -- essays rese   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Wilkinson 1 Comparison/Contrast of â€Å"Cut† and â€Å"The Fourth of July† In the two essays â€Å"Cut,† by Bob Greene and â€Å"The Fourth of July,† by Audre Lorde they both discuss how disappointments as a child affected their lives. Greene’s essay gives five examples about how five boys were cut from a sports team and how they used that disappointment to become successful as adults. Lorde’s essay differed in that it told one story of how her and her family were on their vacation in Washington D.C. and they were not served at a restaurant because they were black. Both authors discuss feelings of being left out, being discriminated against, and how disappointments affected their lives. However, there are more differences than similarities in the essays. I can relate more to Greene’s essay because I am an athlete; however, I have never been in position of worrying about being cut.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Greene and Lorde were similar in that they both faced a form of discrimination on their childhood that helped better them in the future. In â€Å"Cut† the boys all went to try out for a high school sports team and all of them were cut from the teams. â€Å"For the time in my life, I was told wasn’t good enough† (Greene 56). These boys were discriminated against for not having the ability or talent to be good enough to play on the team. On of the people in the essay, Bob Graham stated, â€Å"I know for a fact that it altered my perception of myself. My view of myself was knocked down; my self was lowered† (Greene 57). No one should ever be put into a situation where they face being told they are not good enough. In the other essay, â€Å"The Fourth of July,† a different type of discrimination was discussed, racism. Lorde’s family, which is African American, was faced with discrimination on a vacation to Washington D.C. The y took the trip because Wilkinson 2 Lorde’s sister Phyllis could not go on her senior class to Washington. â€Å"The nuns had given her back her deposit in private, explaining to her that the class, all of whom were white, except Phyllis, would be staying in a hotel where Phyllis ‘would not be happy,’ Daddy explained to her, also in private, that they did not rent rooms to Negroes† (Lorde 202). While in Washington Lorde and her family went out for ice cream to a Breyer’s ice cream shop. They sat down and a waitress, who was white, walked over and... ...t of the season. Not being a starter gave me the determination to work harder and in the end it all paid off. This experience has made me realize that I can do anything as long as I work hard. Wilkinson 5 In conclusion, both Greene and Lorde discuss how disappointments as child have had positive affects on his/her lives as adults. Greene’s essay applied to me more than Lorde’s because I have never been judged by my appearance. I can’t relate to the fact of being cut from a team, but I can relate to the fact being successful with hard work. Wilkinson 6 Works Cited Greene, Bob. â€Å"Cut.† The Prentice Hall Reader. 6th ed. Ed. George Miller. Trenton, N.J.:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Prentice Hall, 2001. 55-60. Lorde, Audre. â€Å"The Fourth of July.† Models for Writers. 7th ed. Ed. Alfred Rosa and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Paul Eschholz. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001. 201-204. Comparison/Contrast of â€Å"Cut† and â€Å"The Fourth of July† by Shane Wilkinson English 110, Section 03 Mrs. Bailey 30 April 2002   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

Types of Story Leads

Lead Every news story begins with an introduction called the lead. This may be a single word, a phrase, a clause, a brief sentence, an entire paragraph or a series of paragraphs. The main functions of the lead, aside from introducing the news story, are to tell the story in capsule form and to answer right away the questions the reader would naturally ask. A good lead answers all the important questions of the reader, indicates the attendant circumstances if they are all important, and arouses the readers’ interest to continue reading the story.The lead is the beginning, the most important structural element of a story. Charnley (1966) stated that, â€Å"an effective lead is a brief, sharp statement of the story's essential facts. † The lead is usually the first sentence, or in some cases the first two sentences, and is ideally 20-25 words in length. Leads should: * open with bright, interesting, colorful nouns and verbs be brief (often only 20-30 words) be, for the mos t part, one sentence in length be crisp and to the point effectively summarize the story â€Å"feature the feature† include attribution (the source) if needed for credibility ive the title for any person mentioned not include personal pronouns such as â€Å"we† and â€Å"you† not include reporter opinion Summary lead The typical lead is called a summary lead or straight summary lead, and it, of course, summarizes the story. The journalist must, therefore, write a clear, fairly short sentence that reveals all, telling the end result of the story. Someone should be able to read the lead and be informed about what happened without reading the rest of the story. A summary lead should answer as many of the 5W's and H as possible: who, what, when, where, why and how.The 5 W’s and H provide the news writer with quick and convenient means of organizing the lead of a story. They also provide the framework or structure for organizing the lead of a story. This is on e of the most common forms of hard news story. But, the question is that how do we decide what is most important and what should follow in descending order of importance? Here, we must use our own judgment. Some questions to ask: What will affect the readers the most? What questions does the lead raise that need to be answered immediately? What supporting quotes are strongest?Below are examples of leads which feature the various 5W's & H. The words that make up the â€Å"W† that is featured are in bold face type. | WHO lead Used when the person involved is more prominent than what he does or what happens to him. -Reckless drivers who don't seem to be drunk may well be high on cocaine or marijuana, according to roadside tests that indicate drugs may rival alcohol as a hazard on the highway. -Monica Lewinsky, the former low-level aide at the center of the current White House investigation, is willing to submit to a polygraph examination in exchange for complete immunity from pr osecution, her lawyer said Sunday.WHAT lead Used when the event or what took place is more important than the person involved in the story. -A pack of wild monkeys terrorized a seaside resort town south of Tokyo last week, attacking 30 people and sending eight of them to the hospital with bites. (This also co-features the who. ) -A Soyus spacecraft docked flawlessly with the Mir space station Saturday, bringing a fresh crew of two Russian cosmonauts and a Frenchman to the orbiting outpost — along with a bottle of French wine. WHY lead Used when the reason is more prominent or unique than what happens. With more amateurs cutting wood for use as an alternative to high-priced heating oil, hospitals are coping with an increasing number of injuries due to chain-saw accidents, reported the American College of Surgeons. WHERE lead Used when the place is unique and no prominent person is involved. -Red China will be the site of the next International Film Festival. WHEN lead Rarely u sed as the reader presumes the story to be timely. However, this lead is useful when speaking of deadlines, holidays and important dates. -Today, almost to the hour, the Revolutionary Government was proclaimed by President Corazon Aquino.HOW lead Used when the manner, mode, means, or method of achieving the story is unnatural way. -Louisiana-Pacific Corp. plans to sell seven out-of-state lumber mills and expand production at 17 others in order to boost output by up to 40 percent. (The how in this lead is also the what. ) Novelty leads Novelty leads differ from  summary leads in  that they make no attempt to answer all of the five Ws and the H. As  the  name  implies novelty  leads are novel. They   use   different   writing   approaches   to   present different   news   situations   to   attract   the   reader’s   attention and   arouse   curiosity.Type of Novelty Lead| Example| CONTRAST: The contrast lead compares two opposite extrem es, generally dramatize a story. The comparisons most frequently used are tragedy with comedy, age with youth, the past with the present and the beautiful with the ugly. | In 1914, the United States entered the First World War with a Navy of 4,376 officers, 68,680 men, 54 airplanes, one airship, three balloons and one air station. Today, there are more than 500,000 active duty officers and enlisted personnel, 475 ships and 8,260 aircraft in our Navy. PICTURE: The picture lead draws a vivid word of the person or thing in the story. I t allows the reader to see the person or thing as you saw it. | Thin and unshaven , his clothes drooping from his body like rags on a scarecrow, Frank Brown, USN, today told naval authorities about six-week ordeal in an open rubber boat in the South China Sea. The new principal, although only at his early thirties, is already silver-haired. He seldom talks, but when he does, he talks with sense. | FREAK: The freak lead is the most novel of the novelty le ads.As the name implies, the freak lead employs a play on words, alliteration, poetry or an unusual typographical arrangement to introduce the facts in the story and to attract the reader’s attention. | For sale: One guided missile destroyer. The Navy is thinking about inserting this advertisement. †¦ $ammy $mith, who i$ just $even, wa$ digging in the $and at $amsons beach today and gue$$ what he found? | BACKGROUND: The background lead is similar to a picture lead, except for one important difference. It draws a vivid word picture of the news setting, surroundings or circumstances. High seas, strong winds and heavy overcast provided the setting for a dramatic mission of mercy in the North Atlantic on the first day of the new year. The PNC campus was turned into a miniature carnival ground Sept. 1 during the 85th F-Day celebration of the College. Decorated with buntings and multi-colored lights, the college quadrangle was a grand setting for a barrio fiesta. | PUNCH: The punch lead consists of a blunt, explosive statement designed to surprise or jolt the reader. | The president is dead. Friday the 13th is over, but the casualty list is still growing.Victory Day! Magsaysay High School celebrated March 18 its 5th victory in the city-wide journalism contests. | QUESTION: The question lead features a pertinent query that arouses the readers’ curiosity and makes them want to read the body of the story for answers. Phrase this lead as a rhetorical question. | How does pay in the Navy compare with civilian wagers? Has the space age affected the role of the Navy? | QUOTATION: The quotation lead features a short, eye catching quote or remark, usually set in quotation marks.A quote lead should be used only when it is so important or remarkable that it overshadows the other facts in the story. | â€Å"You really don’t know what freedom is until you have had to escape from Communist captivity, † says Bob Denglar, a former Navy lieutenant a nd an escape from a Viet Cong prison camp. â€Å"The youth in the New Republic have become partners of the government in its struggle for progress and advancement,† thus spoke PNC Dean of Instruction Rebecca D. Alcantara to some 400 student delegates to the 1998 Hi-Y-H-teens Leadership Training Seminar held Dec. 6-39 at the College Auditorium. | DIRECT ADDRESS: The direct address lead is aimed directly at the readers and makes them collaborators with facts in the story. It usually employs the pronouns â€Å"you† and â€Å"your. † | Your pay will increase by ten percent next month. You can receive a college education Navy expense if you qualify under a new program announced this week. | References : http://journalism20. nuvvo. com/lesson/7587-lead-of-a-news-story www. angelfire. com http://photographytraining. tpub. com

Advocates Act

THE ADVOCATES ACT, 1961 The legal profession as it exists today was created and developed during the British period. However, it is notable that in earlier days of the British period the legal profession was not paid due attention and it was not well organized. Actually the east India Company was not interested in organizing the legal profession. There was no uniform judicial system in the settlements of the east India Company.After introduction of so many charters by the company it enacted The Indian High Courts Act, 1861 (commonly known as the Charter Act) passed by the British Parliament enabled the Crown to establish High Courts in India by Letters Patent and these Letters Patent authorized and empowered the High Courts to make rules for advocates and attorneys (commonly known as Solicitors). The law relating to Legal Practitioners can be found in the Legal Practitioners Act, 1879 and the Indian Bar Councils Act, 1926. Legal Practitioners Act, 1879 came into force with effect fro m 1st January, 1880.In 1879, the legal practitioners act was passed to consolidate and it amend the law relating to the legal practitioners. Under the legal practitioners act, 1979 the term â€Å"legal practitioner† has been used for advocate, vakil or attorney of a high court and pleader, Mukhtar or revenue agent. All these were brought under the jurisdiction of high court. A Person who is qualified to be pleader / vakil / muktas has to appear for examination and after obtaining the certificate he / she may apply under Sec. of the Legal Practitioners Act and Register their name in any Court or Revenue Office situated within the local limits of the Appellate Jurisdiction of the High Court. As Per Sec. 11 of this Act, the High Court may frame the rules declaring what shall be deemed to be the functions, powers and duties of pleaders / vakils / muktas. As per Sec. 13 of this Act, the High Court has Disciplinary control over Pleaders / Vakils / muktas by suspending / dismissal / by withdrawing the certificate granted by it. The Indian Bar Council Act 1926 came into force with effect from 9. . 1926. The main object of the act was to provide for the constitution and incorporation of bar councils for certain courts, to confer powers and impose duties on such councils and also to consolidate and amend the law relating to the legal practitioners of such courts. As per Sec. 4(1), every Bar Council shall consist of 15 Members, one shall be the Advocate General, 4 shall be persons nominated by High Court of whom not more than 2 may be judges of High Court and 10 shall be elected by the Advocates who are practicing at High Court.As per Sec. 8 of Indian Bar Council Act a person may enrol as an advocate in the High Court. After admission as an Advocate he/she has to undergo One year Apprentice training with any senior advocate and he has to issue certificate that training period is completed successfully. After Independence it was deeply felt that the Judicial Admini stration in India should be changed according to the needs of the time. The Law Commission was assigned the job of preparing a report on the Reform of Judicial Administration.In the mean while the All India Bar Committee went into detail of the matter and made its recommendations in 1953. To implement the recommendations of the All India Bar Committee and after taking into account the recommendations of the Law Commission on the subject of Reform of Judicial Administration in so far as the recommendation relate to the Bar and to legal education, a Comprehensive Bill was introduced in the Parliament. The Advocate Bill was passed by both the Houses of Parliament nd it received the assent of the President on 19the May,1961 and it become The Advocates Act,1961 (25 of 1961). The main salient features of this Bar Council is to enroll the candidates who have obtained law degree, disciplinary control over the advocates, to promote legal education to junior advocates and provide financial as sistance to the Advocates on medical ground and also the bereaved family of the Advocates. Objective of the ActThe establishment of an All India Bar Council and a common roll of advocates and advocate on the common roll having a right to practice in any part of the country and in any Court, including the Supreme Court; The integration of the bar into a single class of legal practitioners knows as advocates; The prescription of a uniform qualification for the admission of persons to be advocates; The division of advocates into senior advocates and other advocates based on merit; The creation of autonomous Bar Councils, one for the whole of India and on for each State.The Bill, being a comprehensive measure, repeals the Indian Bar Council Act, 1926, and all other laws on the subject.